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<title>Sinitic languages</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sinitic languages</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other languages spoken in China, see <a href="Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Sinitic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Chinese</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br>distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, <a href="Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data">Sinitic peoples</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><b>Sinitic</b></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data">Proto-Sinitic</td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data">

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a> (?)</li></ul>

</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">ISO 639-5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/zhx" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:zhx">zhx</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sini1245">sini1245</a></code></samp>  <span class="nowrap">(Sinitic)</span><br><samp><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/macr1275">macr1275</a></samp>  <span class="nowrap">(Macro-Bai)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"></span><div style="text-align:left;">Map of Sinitic languages in China</div></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The <b>Sinitic languages</b><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">汉语族</span>; <a href="Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">漢語族</span>; <a href="Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Hànyǔ zú</span></i>), often synonymous with the <b>Chinese languages</b>, are a <a href="Language_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Language group">group</a> of East Asian <a href="Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic languages</a> that constitute a major branch of the <a href="Sino-Tibetan_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan language family">Sino-Tibetan language family</a>. It is frequently proposed that there is a primary split between the Sinitic languages and the rest of the family (the <a href="Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman languages</a>). This view is rejected by some researchers<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but has found phylogenetic support among others.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai languages</a>, whose classification is difficult, may be an offshoot of <a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> and thus Sinitic;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> otherwise, Sinitic is defined only by the many <a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> unified by a shared historical background, and usage of the term "Sinitic" may reflect the linguistic view that <a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> constitutes a family of distinct languages, rather than variants of a single language.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population">Population</h2></div>

<p>Over 91% of the Chinese population speaks a Sinitic language, of whom about three-quarters speak a Mandarin variety.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the number of global speakers of Sinitic branches as of 2018–2019, both native and non-native, are listed below:<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that the numbers are uncertain due to uncertainty in the population estimates of China.

</p>

<th>Branch</th>

<th>Speakers

</th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></td>

<td>1,118,584,040

</td>

<td>73.50%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>85,576,570

</td>

<td>5.62%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>81,817,790

</td>

<td>5.38%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>75,633,810

</td>

<td>4.97%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>47,100,000

</td>

<td>3.09%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></td>

<td>44,065,190

</td>

<td>2.90%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></td>

<td>37,400,000

</td>

<td>2.46%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>22,200,000

</td>

<td>1.46%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou</a></td>

<td>5,380,000

</td>

<td>0.35%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Pinghua_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinghua Chinese">Pinghua</a></td>

<td>4,130,000

</td>

<td>0.27%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></td>

<td>56,300

</td>

<td>0.004%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Total

</th>

<th>1,521,943,700

</th>

<th>100%

</th></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div>

<p>Dialectologist <a href="Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible Sinitic languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200372_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They form a <a href="Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> in which differences generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though there are also some sharp boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sinitic languages can be divided into Macro-Bai languages and Chinese languages, and the following is one of many potential ways of subdividing these languages. Some varieties, such as <a href="Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a>, are hard to classify and thus are not included in the following briefs.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macro-Bai_languages">Macro-Bai languages</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai languages</a></div>

<p>This is a language family first proposed by linguist <a href="Zhengzhang_Shangfang" title="Zhengzhang Shangfang">Zhengzhang Shangfang</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was expanded to include Longjia and Luren.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It likely split off from the rest of Sinitic during the <a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The languages included are all considered minority languages in China and are spoken in the <a href="Southwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest China">Southwest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The languages are:

</p>

<li><a href="Cai-Long_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cai-Long languages">Cai-Long</a>: <a href="Caijia" class="mw-redirect" title="Caijia">Caijia</a>, <a href="Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr>, <a href="Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li></ul>

<p>All other Sinitic languages henceforth would be considered Chinese.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese">Chinese</h3></div>

<p>The Chinese branch of the family is classified into at least seven main families. These families are classified based on five main evolutionary criteria:<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ol><li>The evolution of the historical fully muddy (<span lang="zh-Hans">全浊</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">全濁</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">quánzhuó</span></i>) initials</li>

<li>The distribution of rimes across the four tone qualities, as conditioned by voicing and aspiration of initials</li>

<li>The evolution of the checked (<span lang="zh">入</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rù</span></i>) tone category</li>

<li>The loss or retention of coda position plosives and nasals</li>

<li>The palatalisation of the <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">jiàn</i></span> initial (<span lang="zh">見母</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jiànmǔ</span></i>) in front of high vowels</li></ol>

<p>The varieties within one family may not be mutually intelligible with each other. For instance, <a href="Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhounese</a> and <a href="Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbonese</a> are not highly mutually intelligible. The <a href="Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a> identifies ten groups:<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li>

<li><a href="Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinghua_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinghua Chinese">Pinghua</a> and <a href="Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Tuhua</a></li></ul>

<p>with Jin, Hui, Pinghua, and Tuhua not part of the seven traditional groups.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandarin">Mandarin</h3></div>

<p>Varieties of Mandarin are used in the <a href="Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a>, the <a href="Southwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest China">Southwest</a>, <a href="Huguang" title="Huguang">Huguang</a>, <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a> and the <a href="Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by around three-quarters of the Sinitic-speaking population.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the prestige variety has always been Mandarin, which is still reflected today in <a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Standard Chinese is now an official language of the <a href="Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a>, <a href="People's_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and <a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Re-population efforts, such as that of the <a href="Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> in the Southwest, tended to involve Mandarin speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classification of Mandarin lects has undergone several significant changes, though nowadays it is commonly divided as such, based on the distribution of the historical checked tone:<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a> (sometimes considered part of Northeastern)<sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Jiao-Liao_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiao-Liao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a> (sometimes "Peninsular")</li>

<li><a href="Ji-Lu_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ji-Lu Mandarin">Jilu</a> (sometimes "Northern")</li>

<li><a href="Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a> (or "Zhongyuan")</li>

<li><a href="Lan-Yin_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lan-Yin Mandarin">Lanyin</a> (sometimes "Northwestern" and considered part of Central Plains)</li>

<li><a href="Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> (often considered a top-level group due to the <a href="Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a> (sometimes "Upper Yangtse")</li>

<li><a href="Jianghuai_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jianghuai Mandarin">Jianghuai</a> (or "Lower Yangtze", sometimes "Huai", "Southern" or "Southeastern")<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>as well as other lects, which do not neatly fall into these categories, such as Mandarin <a href="Junhua" class="mw-redirect" title="Junhua">Junhua</a> varieties.

</p><p>Varieties of Mandarin can be defined by their universally lost -m final, low number of tones, and smaller inventory of <a href="Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifiers</a>, among other features. Mandarin lects also often have rhotic <a href="Erhua" title="Erhua">erhua</a> rimes, though the amount of its use may vary between lects.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Loss of checked tone is an often cited criterion for Mandarin languages, though lects such as Yangzhounese and Taiyuannese show otherwise.

</p>

<th colspan="7">Mandarin</th>

<th colspan="4">Non-Mandarin</th>

<th rowspan="2">Gloss

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Beijing</th>

<th>Jinan</th>

<th>Zhengzhou</th>

<th>Taiyuan</th>

<th>Chengdu</th>

<th>Nanjing</th>

<th>Guangzhou</th>

<th>Meizhou</th>

<th>Xiamen</th>

<th>Anyi

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>'sound'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>'heart'

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northeastern_and_Beijing_Mandarin">Northeastern and Beijing Mandarin</h4></div>

<p>Northeastern Mandarin is spoken in <a href="Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a>, <a href="Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a>, most of <a href="Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> and northeastern <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, whereas Beijing Mandarin is spoken in northern <a href="Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, most of <a href="Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, parts of <a href="Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a> and <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two families' most notable features are the heavy use of <a href="Rhotic_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic vowel">rhotic</a> <a href="Erhua" title="Erhua">erhua</a> and seemingly random distribution of the dark checked tone, and generally having four tones with the contours of high flat, rising, dipping, and falling.

</p>

<caption>Tone contour of historically dark checked tone (<span lang="zh">陰入</span>) characters

</caption>

<th colspan="4">Northeastern/Beijing</th>

<th colspan="5">Other</th>

<th rowspan="2">Gloss

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Harbin</th>

<th>Changchun</th>

<th>Shenyang</th>

<th>Beijing</th>

<th>Heyuan</th>

<th>Chaozhou</th>

<th>Suzhou</th>

<th>Hefei</th>

<th>Wuhan

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>'guest'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>'eight'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>'north'

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Northeastern Mandarin, especially in Heilongjiang, contains many loanwords from Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-harbin_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harbin-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<th>Pronunciation</th>

<th>Meaning</th>

<th>Origin

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><i><span lang="zh-Latn">bǔliúkè</span></i></td>

<td>'<a href="Rutabaga" title="Rutabaga">rutabaga</a>'</td>

<td><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">брюква</span></span> <i>bryukva</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><i><span lang="zh-Latn">mǎshén</span></i></td>

<td>'machine'</td>

<td><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">машина</span></span> <i>mashina</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><i><span lang="zh-Latn">bālízi</span></i></td>

<td><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">полиция</span></span> <i>politsiya</i>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Northeastern Mandarin lects can be divided into three main groups, namely Hafu (including <a href="Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbinnese</a> and <a href="Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchunnese</a>), Jishen (including Jilinnese and <a href="Shenyang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenyang dialect">Shenyangnese</a>), and Heisong. Notably, the extinct <a href="Taz_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Taz language">Taz language</a> of <a href="Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> is also a Northeastern Mandarin language. Beijing is sometimes included in Northeastern Mandarin due to its distribution of the historical dark checked tone,<sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_2_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though is listed as its own group by others, often due to its more regular light checked tones.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jilu_Mandarin">Jilu Mandarin</h4></div>

<p>Jilu Mandarin is spoken in southern Hebei and western <a href="Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is often represented with <a href="Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinannese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable cities that use Jilu Mandarin lects include <a href="Cangzhou" title="Cangzhou">Cangzhou</a>, <a href="Shijiazhuang" title="Shijiazhuang">Shijiazhuang</a>, <a href="Jinan" title="Jinan">Jinan</a> and <a href="Baoding" title="Baoding">Baoding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characteristically Jilu Mandarin features include merging the dark checked into the dark level tone, the light checked into light level or departing based on the <a href="Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a> of the <a href="Initial_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Initial (linguistics)">initial</a>, and vowel breaking in <i>tong</i> rime series' (<span lang="zh">通攝</span>) checked-tone words, among other features.

</p><p>Jilu Mandarin can be classified into Baotang, Shiji, Canghui and Zhangli.<sup id="cite_ref-mandarin_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mandarin-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhangli is of note due to its preservation of a separate checked tone.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jiaoliao_Mandarin">Jiaoliao Mandarin</h4></div>

<p>Jiaoliao Mandarin is spoken in the <a href="Shandong_Peninsula" title="Shandong Peninsula">Jiaodong</a> and <a href="Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsulae</a>, which includes the cities of <a href="Dalian" title="Dalian">Dalian</a> and <a href="Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a>, as well as several prefectures along the China-Korea border.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Jilu Mandarin, its light checked tone is merged into light level or departing based on the manner of articulation of the initial, though its dark checked is merged into the rising. Its <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rì</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">日母</span>) terms are pronounced with a <a href="Null_initial" class="mw-redirect" title="Null initial">null initial</a> (apart from open <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhǐ</span></i> rime series (<span lang="zh">止攝開口</span>) finals), unlike the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʐ/</span> of Northern and Beijing Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Based on, for example, the pronunciation of the <a href="Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalized</a> <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jiàn</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">見母</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jiaoliao Mandarin can be divided into Qingzhou, Denglian and Gaihuan areas.<sup id="cite_ref-mandarin_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mandarin-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<th>Yantai</th>

<th>Weihai</th>

<th>Qingdao</th>

<th>Dalian</th>

<th>Gloss

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>'to hand in'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>'to see'

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_Plains_and_Lanyin_Mandarin">Central Plains and Lanyin Mandarin</h4></div>

<p>Central Plains Mandarin is spoken in the <a href="Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a> of <a href="Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>, southwestern <a href="Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, southern <a href="Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and northern <a href="Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, as well as most of <a href="Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, southern <a href="Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a> and <a href="Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and southern <a href="Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, in famous cities such as <a href="Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>, <a href="Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a>, <a href="Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, <a href="Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a>, <a href="Xi'an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, <a href="Xining" title="Xining">Xining</a> and <a href="Lanzhou" title="Lanzhou">Lanzhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central Plains Mandarin lects merge the historical checked tones with a lesser muddy (<span lang="zh">次濁</span>) and clear (<span lang="zh">清</span>) initial together with the rising tone, and those with a fully muddy (<span lang="zh">全濁</span>) initial are merged with the light level tone.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Lanyin Mandarin, spoken in northern Ningxia, parts of Gansu, and northern Xinjiang, is sometimes grouped with Central Plains Mandarin due to its merged lesser light and dark checked tones, though it is realised as a departing tone.

</p><p>Subdivision of Central Plains Mandarin is not fully agreed upon, though one possible subdivision sees 13 divisions, namely Xuhuai, Zhengkai, Luosong, Nanlu, Yanhe, Shangfu, Xinbeng, Luoxiang, Fenhe, Guanzhong, Qinlong, Longzhong and Nanjiang.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lanyin Mandarin, on the other hand, is divided as Jincheng, Yinwu, Hexi, and Beijiang. The <a href="Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan language</a> is a collection of Central Plains Mandarin varieties spoken in the former <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.

</p>

<p>Jin is spoken in most of <a href="Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, western <a href="Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, northern <a href="Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, northern <a href="Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> and central <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often represented by <a href="Taiyuan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiyuan dialect">Taiyuannese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was first proposed as a lect separate from the rest of Mandarin by <a href="Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li Rong</a>, where it was proposed as lects in and around Shanxi with a checked tone, though this stance is not without disagreement.<sup id="cite_ref-gailun_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gailun-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jin varieties also often has disyllabic words derived from syllable splitting (分音詞), through the infixation of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/(u)əʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>l/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">笨</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pəŋ꜄</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">→</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">薄</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pəʔ꜇</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">愣</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ləŋ꜄</p></div><p style="display: none;">笨 {} 薄愣</p><p style="display: none;">pəŋ꜄ → pəʔ꜇ ləŋ꜄</p><p style="clear: left;">'stupid'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

</div>

<p>As per the Language Atlas by Li, Jin is divided into Dabao, Zhanghu, Wutai, Lüliang, Bingzhou, Shangdang, Hanxin, and Zhiyan branches.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southwestern_Mandarin">Southwestern Mandarin</h4></div>

<p>Spoken in <a href="Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, <a href="Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, northern <a href="Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, most of <a href="Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, southern <a href="Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and <a href="Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, <a href="Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, most of <a href="Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> and bordering parts of <a href="Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, as well as <a href="Kokang" title="Kokang">Kokang</a> of Myanmar and parts of northern <a href="Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, Southwestern Mandarin speakers take up the most area and population of all Mandarinic language groups, and would be the eighth most spoken language in the world if separated from the rest of Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southwestern Mandarinic tends to not have <a href="Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex consonants</a>, and merges all checked tone categories together. Except for <a href="Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minchi</a>, which has a standalone checked category, the checked tone is merged with another category. Representative lects include <a href="Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhannese</a> and <a href="Sichuanese_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sichuanese (language)">Sichuanese</a>, and sometimes <a href="Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunmingnese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Southwestern Mandarin tends to be split into Chuanqian, Xishu, Chuanxi, Yunnan, Huguang and Guiliu branches. Minchi is sometimes separated as a remnant of Old Shu.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Huai is spoken in central <a href="Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>, northern <a href="Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, far western and eastern <a href="Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> and most of <a href="Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to its preservation of a checked tone, some linguists believe that Huai ought to be treated as a top-level group, like Jin. Representative lects tend to be <a href="Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjingnese</a>, <a href="Hefei_dialect" title="Hefei dialect">Hefeinese</a> and Yangzhounese.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Huai of Nanjing has likely served as a national prestige during the Ming and Qing periods,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though not all linguists support this viewpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Language Atlas divides Huai into Tongtai, Huangxiao, and Hongchao areas, with the latter further split into Ninglu and Huaiyang. Tongtai, being geographically located furthest west, has the most significant Wu influence, such as in its distribution of historical voiced plosive series.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<th colspan="2">Tongtai</th>

<th colspan="4">Non-Tongtai

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Nantong</th>

<th>Taizhou</th>

<th>Yangzhou</th>

<th>Hangzhou</th>

<th>Fuzhou</th>

<th>Huizhou

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Yue Chinese is spoken by around 84 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in western <a href="Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, eastern <a href="Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> and parts of <a href="Hainan_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainan province">Hainan</a>, as well as overseas communities such as <a href="Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a> and <a href="Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Famous lects such as <a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> and <a href="Taishan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Taishan dialect">Taishanese</a> belong to this family.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yue Chinese lects generally possess <a href="Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long-short distinctions</a> in their vowels, which is reflected in their almost universally split dark-checked and often split light-checked tones. They generally also tend to preserve all three checked plosive finals and three nasal finals. The status of Pinghua is uncertain, and some believe its two groups, Northern and Southern, should be listed under Yue,<sup id="cite_ref-guangxi_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangxi-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some reject this standpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption>Checked tone contours in Yue lects

</caption>

<th colspan="2">Light

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Short</th>

<th>Short</th>

<th>Long

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Examples</th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Guangzhou

</th>

<td colspan="2">˨˨

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Hong Kong

</th>

<td colspan="2">˨˨

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Dongguan

</th>

<td colspan="2">˨˨

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Shiqi

</th>

<td colspan="3">˧

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Taishan

</th>

<td colspan="2">˨˩

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Bobai

</th>

<td colspan="2">˨˨

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Yulin

</th>

<td>˨˩

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Yue is generally split into <a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> (which itself contains <a href="Yuehai_Yue" title="Yuehai Yue">Yuehai</a>, Xiangshan, and <a href="Guan-Bao_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Guan-Bao dialect">Guanbao</a>), <a href="Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a>, <a href="Gaoyang_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaoyang Yue">Gaoyang</a>, <a href="Qin-Lian_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin-Lian Yue">Qinlian</a>, <a href="Wu-Hua_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu-Hua Yue">Wuhua</a>, <a href="Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a> (which includes <a href="Luo-Guang_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo-Guang Yue">Luoguang</a>), <a href="Yong-Xun_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Yong-Xun Yue">Yongxun</a> and the two Pinghua branches.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Siyi is generally agreed to be the most divergent, and Goulou is believed to be the one which is closest related to Pinghua.<sup id="cite_ref-guangxi_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangxi-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hakka">Hakka</h3></div>

<p>Hakka Chinese is a direct result of several migration waves from Northern China to the South,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is spoken in eastern <a href="Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, parts of <a href="Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, western <a href="Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, southern <a href="Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, as well as scattered points in the rest of Guangdong, <a href="Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, <a href="Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and <a href="Hainan_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainan province">Hainan</a>, along with overseas communities such as in <a href="West_Kalimantan" title="West Kalimantan">West Kalimantan</a> and <a href="Bangka_Belitung_Islands" title="Bangka Belitung Islands">Bangka Belitung Islands</a> in <a href="Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, by an estimated total of 44 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some believe that Hakka is closely related to other groups, such as Gan, Yue, or Tongtai.<sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_1_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hakka varieties generally have no voiced plosive initials and preserve the historical <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rì</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">日母</span>) as an n-like sound.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-meixian_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meixian-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption>Realization of the historical <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rì</span></i> initial in Hakka

</caption>

<th>Meizhou</th>

<th>Changting</th>

<th>Hsinchu</th>

<th>Yudu

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Hakka can be divided into Yuetai, Hailu, Yuebei, Yuexi, Tingzhou, Ninglong, Yuxin and Tonggui.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meizhounese</a> is often used as the representative variety of Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Min Chinese is a direct descendant of Old Chinese, and is spoken in <a href="Chaoshan" title="Chaoshan">Chaoshan</a> and <a href="Zhanjiang" title="Zhanjiang">Zhanjiang</a> of <a href="Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>,

<a href="Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>, <a href="Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, most of <a href="Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> and parts of <a href="Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> and <a href="Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, by around 76 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to significant amounts of migration, many people in <a href="Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> are also able of speaking Min varieties. Lects such as <a href="Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teoswa</a>, <a href="Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a>, <a href="Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> (incl. <a href="Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese</a>) and <a href="Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Hokchiu</a> are all Min varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Since Min descended from Old Chinese rather than Middle Chinese, it has some features that would be out of place in other varieties. For instance, some words with the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">cheng</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">澄母</span>) are not affricates in Min. This, interestingly, has led to many languages, such as <a href="Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="Inuktitut_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inuktitut language">Inuktitut</a>, <a href="Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>, <a href="M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a> and <a href="Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a>, loaning the Sinitic word for 'tea' (<span lang="zh">茶</span>) with a plosive. Min varieties also have a very large number of words with <a href="Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">literary pronunciations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption>Selection of reflexes of the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">cheng</span></i> initial

</caption>

<th colspan="3">Non-Min

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Fuzhou</th>

<th>Quanzhou</th>

<th>Chaozhou</th>

<th>Putian</th>

<th>Haikou</th>

<th>Leizhou</th>

<th>Lanzhou</th>

<th>Guiyang</th>

<th>Changsha

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʂʰən</span></td>

<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰən</span></td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Min can primarily be split into Coastal and Inland Min varieties. The former contains the <a href="Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> branches of Quanzhang (Hokkien), Chaoshan (Teoswa), <a href="Datian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Datian dialect">Datian</a> and <a href="Zhongshan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhongshan dialect">Zhongshan</a>, the <a href="Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a> branches of Houguan and Funing, Qionglei Min, as well as <a href="Puxian_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Puxian Min">Puxian Min</a>, whereas the latter includes <a href="Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a>, <a href="Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a> and <a href="Shaojiang_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaojiang Min">Shaojiang Min</a>. Shaojiang Min acts as a transitional area between Min, Gan, and Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gailun_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gailun-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Wu Chinese is spoken in most of <a href="Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, <a href="Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, southern <a href="Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, parts of southern <a href="Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and eastern <a href="Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> by around 82 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wu_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many large cities in the <a href="Yangtze_Delta" title="Yangtze Delta">Yangtze Delta</a>, such as <a href="Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>, <a href="Changzhou" title="Changzhou">Changzhou</a>, <a href="Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> and <a href="Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, use a Wu variety. Wu varieties generally have a fricative initial in their negators, a three-way plosive distinction, as well as a checked coda preserved as a <a href="Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>, except for Oujiang lects, where it has become <a href="Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a>, and Xuanzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption>An example of a tripartite division of plosives

</caption>

<th>Shanghai</th>

<th>Suzhou</th>

<th>Changzhou</th>

<th>Shaoxing</th>

<th>Ningbo</th>

<th>Taizhou</th>

<th>Wenzhou</th>

<th>Jinhua</th>

<th>Lishui</th>

<th>Quzhou

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><a href="Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, <a href="Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a> and <a href="Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhounese</a> are usually used as representatives of Wu.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wu Chinese varieties generally have a massive number of vowels, which rivals even <a href="North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Jinhui_dialect" title="Jinhui dialect">Dondac variety</a> has been observed to have 20 phonemic monophthongal vowels, according to one analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Qian_Nairong" title="Qian Nairong">Qian Nairong</a> divides Wu into <a href="Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a> (or Northern Wu), <a href="Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a>, <a href="Oujiang_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Oujiang Wu">Oujiang</a>, <a href="Chuqu_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuqu Wu">Chuqu</a> and <a href="Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Wuzhou</a>. Northern Wu is further divided into Piling, Suhujia, Tiaoxi, Linshao, Yongjiang, and Hangzhou, though Hangzhou's classification is unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wu_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Huizhou Chinese is spoken in western <a href="Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, southern <a href="Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and parts of <a href="Jingdezhen" title="Jingdezhen">Jingdezhen</a>, by around 5 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is identified as a top-level group by the Language Atlas, though some linguists believe in other theories, such as it being a Gan-influenced Wu variety, due to an identifiable basis of Old Wu features.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hui varieties are phonologically diverse, and some features are shared with Wu, such as the simplification of diphthongs.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hui can be divided into Jishe, Xiuyi, Qiwu, Jingzhan and Yanzhou branches, with Tunxinese and Jixinese being representatives.

</p>

<p>Gan Chinese is spoken in northern and central <a href="Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, parts of <a href="Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> and <a href="Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and eastern <a href="Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, by 22 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes believed to be related to Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_1_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_2_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gan varieties tend to not <a href="Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalize</a> terms with the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jian</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">見母</span>) and have an f-like initial in closed <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiao</span></i> and <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xia</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">合口曉匣兩母</span>) terms, among other features.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption>Pronunciation of terms with a <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xia</span></i> or <span lang="zh">xiao</span> initial and closed medial in Gan

</caption>

<th>Nanchang</th>

<th>Yichun</th>

<th>Fuzhou</th>

<th>Yingtan

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Gan can also be divided into Northern and Southern groups. The Northern group was formed during the <a href="Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, whereas the Southern group was developed based on Northern Gan.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Language Atlas sees Gan divided into Changdu, Yiliu, Jicha, Fuguang, Yingyi, Datong, Dongsui, Huaiyue, and Leizi branches.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchangnese</a> is often chosen as the representative.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shaojiang Min is identified to be influenced or even closely related to Fuguang Gan.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xiang">Xiang</h3></div>

<p>Xiang Chinese is spoken in central and western <a href="Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> and nearby parts of <a href="Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and <a href="Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a> by an estimated 37 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to migrations, Xiang can be split into New and Old Xiang groups, with Old Xiang having fewer Mandarin-influenced features.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-other_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xiang varieties have universally lost their checked codas, but the majority of them still have a unique preserved checked tone contour. Most also have a three-way plosive distinction, like Wu varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>One way of dividing Xiang varieties sees five distinct families, namely Changyi, Hengzhou, Louzhao, Chenxu, and Yongzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changshanese</a> and one of <a href="Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfengnese</a> or Loudinese are usually taken as Xiang representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_classification">Internal classification</h2></div>

<p>The traditional, dialectological classification of Chinese languages is based on the evolution of the sound categories of <a href="Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>. Little comparative work has been done (the usual way of reconstructing the relationships between languages), and little is known about mutual intelligibility. Even within the dialectological classification, details are disputed, such as the establishment in the 1980s of three new top-level groups: <a href="Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou</a>, <a href="Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> and <a href="Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a>, although Pinghua is itself a pair of languages and Huizhou maybe half a dozen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201041–53,_55–56_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201041–53,_55–56-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan20069–18,_61–69,_222_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan20069–18,_61–69,_222-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Like Bai, the <a href="Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> languages are commonly thought to have split off directly from <a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMei1970?_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMei1970?-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evidence for this split is that all Sinitic languages apart from the Min group can fit into the structure of the <i><a href="Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a></i>, a 7th-century <a href="Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19843_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19843-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this view is not universally accepted.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Points_of_contention">Points of contention</h3></div>

<p>Like many other language families, Sinitic languages have had problems with classification. The following are a few examples.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_China">Southern China</h4></div>

<p>Traditionally, the <a href="Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">lect of urban Hangzhou</a> and <a href="New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New Xiang</a> of eastern <a href="Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> are not considered Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, linguists such as Richard VanNess Simmons and Zhou Zhenhe have observed that these two varieties possess more qualifying features of <a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> languages.<sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the vowels of the second division of the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jia</span></i> (<span lang="zh">假</span>) initial is often raised and backed in Wu and Xiang, while they are not in Hangzhounese and New Xiang.

</p>

<th colspan="3">Traditionally Mandarin</th>

<th colspan="4">Traditionally Wu</th>

<th colspan="2">Traditionally Xiang</th>

<th rowspan="2">Gloss

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></th>

<th><a href="Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></th>

<th><a href="Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></th>

<th><a href="Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></th>

<th><a href="Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></th>

<th><a href="Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhou</a></th>

<th><a href="Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a></th>

<th><a href="Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></th>

<th><a href="Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>'flower'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>'melon'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>'down'

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Nantongnese has heavy Wu influence, which has led to it also having raised and backed vowels.

</p><p><a href="Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhounese</a> and <a href="Maihua" class="mw-redirect" title="Maihua">Maihua</a> are both traditionally considered <a href="Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> lects.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent research, however, has noted that these are both are more likely unclassified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201073_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201073-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maihua, for example, may be a Yue-<a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>-<a href="Hainanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainanese language">Hainanese Min</a> mixed language.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Dongjiang Bendihua (<span lang="zh">東江本地話</span>) is spoken in and around <a href="Huizhou" title="Huizhou">Huizhou</a> and <a href="Heyuan" title="Heyuan">Heyuan</a>. Its classification has always been unclear, though the most common standpoint is that it is considered Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_China">Northern China</h4></div>

<p>The variety spoken in the <a href="Ganyu_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganyu District">Ganyu District</a> of <a href="Lianyungang" title="Lianyungang">Lianyungang</a> (<span lang="zh">贛榆話</span>) is listed as a variety of <a href="Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains Mandarin</a> in the <a href="Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though its tonal distribution is more similar to <a href="Jiao-Liao_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiao-Liao Mandarin">Peninsular Mandarin</a> varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationships_between_groups">Relationships between groups</h3></div>

<p><a href="Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three larger groups: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang), and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the Southern Group is derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the <a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central group was transitional between the Northern and Southern groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="Dialect_boundaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialect boundaries">dialect boundaries</a>, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of <a href="Wave_model" title="Wave model">wave models</a>. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the <a href="Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> to the <a href="Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Lower Yangtze Mandarin</a> area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the <a href="Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIwata2010102–108_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata2010102–108-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_quantitative_study">A quantitative study</h3></div>

<p>A 2007 study compared fifteen major urban dialects on the objective criteria of <a href="Lexical_similarity" title="Lexical similarity">lexical similarity</a> and regularity of sound correspondences, and subjective criteria of intelligibility and similarity. Most of these criteria show a top-level split with Northern, <a href="New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New Xiang</a>, and <a href="Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> in one group and <a href="Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> (samples at Fuzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou), <a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>, and <a href="Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> in the other group. The exception was phonological regularity, where the one Gan dialect (<a href="Nanchang_Gan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang Gan">Nanchang Gan</a>) was in the Southern group and very close to <a href="Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian Hakka</a>, and the deepest phonological difference was between <a href="Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a> (the southernmost Wu dialect) and all other dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The study did not find clear splits within the Northern and Central areas:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>Changsha (New Xiang) was always within the Mandarin group. No Old Xiang dialect was in the sample.</li>

<li>Taiyuan (<a href="Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> or Shanxi) and Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei) were subjectively perceived as relatively different from other Northern dialects but were very close in mutual intelligibility. Objectively, Taiyuan had substantial phonological divergence but little lexical divergence.</li>

<li>Chengdu (Sichuan) was somewhat divergent lexically but very little on the other measures.</li></ul>

<p>The two <a href="Wu_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu dialect">Wu dialects</a> (Wenzhou and Suzhou) occupied an intermediate position, closer to the Northern/New Xiang/Gan group in lexical similarity and strongly closer in subjective intelligibility but closer to Min/Hakka/Yue in phonological regularity and subjective similarity, except that Wenzhou was farthest from all other dialects in phonological regularity. The two Wu dialects were close to each other in lexical similarity and subjective similarity but not in mutual intelligibility, where Suzhou was closer to Northern/Xiang/Gan than to Wenzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the Southern subgroup, Hakka and Yue grouped closely together on the three lexical and subjective measures but not in phonological regularity. The Min dialects showed high divergence, with Min Fuzhou (<a href="Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a>) grouped only weakly with the <a href="Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> dialects of <a href="Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Xiamen</a> and <a href="Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Chaozhou</a> on the two objective criteria and was slightly closer to Hakka and Yue on the subjective criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_comparison">Internal comparison</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a></div>

<p>The following section will be dedicated to comparing non-Bai and non-Cai–Long Sinitic languages. Though all stem from Old Chinese, they have all developed differences with each other.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h3></div>

<p>Typographically, the vast majority of Sinitic languages use <a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Sinographs</a>. However, some varieties, such as <a href="Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a> and <a href="Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a>, have alternative scripts, namely <a href="Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillic</a> and <a href="Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabets</a>. Even between varieties which use Sinographs, characters are repurposed or invented to cover for the difference in vocabulary. Examples include <span lang="zh">靚</span>; 'pretty' in Yue,<sup id="cite_ref-guangzhou_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangzhou-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">𠊎</span>; 'I', 'me' in Hakka,<sup id="cite_ref-meixian_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meixian-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">即</span>; 'this' in Hokkien,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">覅</span>; 'to not want' in Wu,<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">莫</span>; 'do not' in Xiang, and <span lang="zh">嘎</span>; 'ill-tempered' in Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harbin_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harbin-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that both traditional and simplified characters can be used to write any lect.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology">Phonology</h3></div>

<p>Phonologically speaking, though all Sinitic languages possess <a href="Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>, their contours and the total number of tones vary wildly, from <a href="Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, which can be analysed to have only two tones,<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="Bobai_dialect" title="Bobai dialect">Bobainese</a>, which has ten.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sinitic languages also vary wildly in their phonological inventories and phonotactics. Take for instance <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mɭɤŋ/</span> (<span lang="zh">門兒</span>; 'door (diminutive)') seen in Pingdingnese,<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃɦɻʷəi/</span> (<span lang="zh">水</span>; 'water') of Xuanzhounese,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which both show syllables which do not follow the (single) consonant-glide-vowel-consonant syllable structure of more well-known lects. Tone sandhi is also a feature which not all lects share. Cantonese, for instance, only has a very weak system,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas Wu varieties not only have complex, intricate systems, which affect almost all syllables, but also uses it to mark for grammatical <a href="Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">part of speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Take for instance, this simplified analysis of Suzhounese tone sandhi:<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption>Unchecked Tone Sandhi

</caption>

<th>chain length →<br>↓ 1st char tone cat

</th>

<th>2 char

</th>

<th>3 char

</th>

<th>4 char

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>dark level (1)

</th>

<td>˦ ꜉

</td>

<td>˦ ˦ ꜉

</td>

<td>˦ ˦ ˦ ꜉

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>light level (2)

</th>

<td>˨ ˧

</td>

<td>˨ ˧ ꜊

</td>

<td>˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>rising (3)

</th>

<td>˥ ˩

</td>

<td>˥ ˩ ꜌

</td>

<td>˥ ˩ ˩ ꜌

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>dark departing (5)

</th>

<td>˥˨ ˧

</td>

<td>˥˨ ˧ ꜊

</td>

<td>˥˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>light departing (6)

</th>

<td>˨˧ ˩

</td>

<td>˨˧ ˩ ꜌

</td>

<td>˨˧ ˩ ˩ ꜌

</td></tr></tbody></table>

</div>

<caption>Checked tone sandhi

</caption>

<th colspan="2">chain length →

</th>

<th rowspan="2">2 char

</th>

<th rowspan="2">3 char

</th>

<th rowspan="2">4 char

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>2nd char<br>tone cat

</th>

<th>1st char<br>darkness

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2">level (1, 2)

</th>

<th>dark (7)

</th>

<td>˦ ˨˧

</td>

<td>˦ ˨˧ ꜊

</td>

<td>˦ ˨˧ ˦ ꜉

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>light (8)

</th>

<td>˨ ˧

</td>

<td>˨ ˧ ꜊

</td>

<td>˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2">rising (3)

</th>

<th>dark (7)

</th>

<td>˥ ˥˩

</td>

<td>˥ ˥˩ ꜌

</td>

<td>˥ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>light (8)

</th>

<td>˨ ˥˩

</td>

<td>˨ ˥˩ ꜌

</td>

<td>˨ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2">departing (5, 6)

</th>

<th>dark (7)

</th>

<td>˥ ˥˨˧

</td>

<td>˥ ˥˨ ˧

</td>

<td>˥ ˥˨ ˨ ˧

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>light (8)

</th>

<td>˨ ˥˨˧

</td>

<td>˨ ˥˨ ˧

</td>

<td>˨ ˥˨ ˨ ˧

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2">checked (7, 8)

</th>

<th>dark (7)

</th>

<td>˦ ˦

</td>

<td>˦ ˦ ꜉

</td>

<td>˦ ˦ ˦ ˨

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>light (8)

</th>

<td>˧ ˦

</td>

<td>˧ ˦ ꜉

</td>

<td>˧ ˦ ˨ ꜋

</td></tr></tbody></table>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar">Grammar</h3></div>

<p>Disregarding phonology, grammar is the feature of Sinitic languages which differ the most. The majority of Sinitic languages do not possess tenses, though exceptions include Northern Wu lects such as Shanghainese and <a href="Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a>, though it is largely breaking down in Shanghainese due to Mandarin influence.<sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sinitic languages generally also have no case marking, though lects such as Linxianese and Hengshannese do possess case particles, with the latter expressing it through tone change.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sinitic languages generally have SVO word order and possess classifiers.

</p><p>Verb usage may be different between Sinitic languages. Notice the double verb marking seen in lects such as <a href="Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijingese</a>, in these sentences meaning "today I go to Guangzhou":<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Wuxinese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">今阿</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cin<sup>1</sup>-a<sup>1</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngeu<sup>4</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular">1sg</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">廣州</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kuaon<sup>3</sup>-cieu<sup>1</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">Guangzhou</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">去</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chi<sup>5</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">go</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;">(<a href="Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a>)</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><p style="display: none;">{今阿} 我 {廣州} 去</p><p style="display: none;">{cin1-a1} ngeu4 {kuaon3-cieu1} chi5</p><p style="display: none;">today 1sg Guangzhou go</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indirect_object_marking">Indirect object marking</h4></div>

<p>Sinitic languages tend to vary greatly in how they mark indirect objects. The area which varies tends to be the placement of the indirect and direct objects.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Mandarinic, Xiang, Hui, and Min languages often place the indirect object (IO) before the direct object (DO). Some lects have switched to IO-DO structure due to Mandarin influence, such as <a href="Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchangese</a> and <a href="Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, though Shanghainese also has the alternative word order.

</p>

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<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Beijingese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">他</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tā</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">給</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gěi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">了</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wǒ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">一</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yī</p><p style="margin: 0px;">one</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">盒</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hé</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">糖。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">táng</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sweets</p></div><p style="display: none;">他給了我一盒糖。</p><p style="display: none;">tā gěi le wǒ yī hé táng</p><p style="display: none;">3SG give PERF 1SG one CL sweets</p><p style="clear: left;">"He gave me a box of sweets."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

</td>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Taiyuanese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">給</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kei<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣə<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">一</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iəʔ<sup>2</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">one</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">本</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pəŋ<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">書。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">su<sup>11</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">book</p></div><p style="display: none;">給我一本書。</p><p style="display: none;">kei53 ɣə53 iəʔ2 pəŋ53 su11</p><p style="display: none;">give 1SG one CL book</p><p style="clear: left;">"Give me a book."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>

</p>

</td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Changshanese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">媽媽</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ma<sup>33</sup> ma</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ma</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">誒，</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ei</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SPEC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">把</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pa<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋo<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">兩</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lian<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">two</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">塊</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kʰuai<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">錢</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕiɛ̃<sup>13</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">money</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">咯。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SPEC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">{媽媽} 誒，把我兩塊錢咯。</p><p style="display: none;">{ma33 ma} ei pa41 ŋo41 lian41 kʰuai41 tɕiɛ̃13 lo</p><p style="display: none;">ma SPEC give 1SG two CL money SPEC</p><p style="clear: left;">"Mama, give me two dollars please."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

</td>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Nanchangese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">你人</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜂n len</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="polite register" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">接</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜀tɕia</p><p style="margin: 0px;">lend</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">了</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">佢</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜂tɕie</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">三</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜀san</p><p style="margin: 0px;">three</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">隻</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tsaʔ꜆</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">鍋。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜀wo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">pot</p></div><p style="display: none;">{你人} 接了佢三隻鍋。</p><p style="display: none;">{꜂n len} ꜀tɕia le ꜂tɕie ꜀san tsaʔ꜆ ꜀wo</p><p style="display: none;">2SG.POL lend PERF 3SG three CL pot</p><p style="clear: left;">"You lent him three pots."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>

</p>

</td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<p>On the other hand, Gan, Wu, Hakka, and Yue languages tend to place the DO in front of the IO.

</p>

<div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Yichunnese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋo<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">得</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɛ<sup>42</sup>⁻<sup>33</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">本</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pun<sup>42</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">書</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕy<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">book</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">你。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ȵi<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">我得本書你。</p><p style="display: none;">ŋo34 tɛ42⁻33 pun42 ɕy34 ȵi34</p><p style="display: none;">1SG give CL book 2SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"I give a book to you."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

</td>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Shanghainese (<a href="Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a>):</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">撥</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">peq</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">對</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">te</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">鞋子</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gha - tsy</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shoe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngu</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">撥對 {鞋子} 我。</p><p style="display: none;">peq te {gha - tsy} ngu</p><p style="display: none;">give CL shoe 1SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"Give me a pair of shoes."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>

</p>

</td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Yining Pinghua:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">分</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fɐn<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">個</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ko<sup>33</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">梨子</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lɐi<sup>31</sup> tsə<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">pear</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">你。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nə<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">分個 {梨子} 你。</p><p style="display: none;">fɐn34 ko33 {lɐi31 tsə53} nə53</p><p style="display: none;">give CL pear 2SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"I'll give you a pear."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

</td>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Hong Kong Hakka (<i>Lau's Romanization</i>):<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">分</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bín</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">塊</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kuài</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">麪包</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mèn báu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bread</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">𠊎。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngāi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">分塊 {麪包} 𠊎。</p><p style="display: none;">bín kuài {mèn báu} ngāi</p><p style="display: none;">give CL bread 1SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"Give me a piece of bread."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>

</p>

</td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classifiers">Classifiers</h4></div>

<p>Like other East Asian languages such as <a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and <a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, Sinitic languages have a system of <a href="Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifers</a>, however, use of classifiers vary greatly in features such as <a href="Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definiteness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Cantonese, for instance, they can be used to mark possession, which is rare in Sinitic while common in Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

</div>

<p><span lang="zh">個</span> and <span lang="zh">隻</span> are the most common generic classifiers cross-linguistically.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As previously mentioned, Mandarinic languages tend to have fewer classifiers whereas the Southern non-Mandarinic varieties tend to have more.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstratives">Demonstratives</h4></div>

<p>Sinitic languages can vary greatly in their system of <a href="Demonstratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstratives">demonstratives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a> and other Northeastern varieties have a two-way system: <span lang="zh">這</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhè</span></i> (proximal) and <span lang="zh">那</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">nà</span></i> (distal), but this is not the only system found in Sinitic languages.

</p><p><a href="Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhannese</a> has a neutral demonstrative, which can be used regardless of the distance to the deictic center.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar systems are found in Northern Wu lects such as Suzhounese and <a href="Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbonese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nɤ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="demonstrative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">是</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sɿ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">生</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sən<sup>55</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">unripe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">的</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="patient-like argument of canonical transitive verb">P</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">，</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nɤ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="demonstrative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">是</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sɿ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">熟</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">səu<sup>213</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">ripe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">的</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="patient-like argument of canonical transitive verb">P</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 是生的， <sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 是熟的</p><p style="display: none;">nɤ35 sɿ35 sən55 ti {} nɤ35 sɿ35 səu213 ti</p><p style="display: none;">DEM COP unripe P {} DEM COP ripe P</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>In the above sentence, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nɤ³⁵/</span> can be translated as both 'this' and 'that'. Though Wuhannese has this system of a one-term neutral system, it also has a two-way proximal-distal system. This is the same for most other lects with a one-term system.

</p><p>Even within two-way systems, which is the most common system, terms could have developed to mean the opposite distance from the deitic center. Cantonese <span lang="zh">嗰</span>; <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">go²</span></i> (distal) and Shanghainese <span lang="zh">搿</span>; <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">geq</span></i> (proximal) are both etymologically from <span lang="zh">個</span>, for instance.<sup id="cite_ref-guangzhou_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangzhou-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many Sinitic languages have three-way systems, but the three distances are not always the same ones. For instance, whereas Guangshan Mandarin has a person-oriented proximal, medial, and distal system, Xinyu Gan has a distance-oriented close, proximal, and distal system. Gan especially has many varieties with a three-way system, sometimes even marked with tone and vowel length rather than just changing the term used.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A small number of varieties possess even four- or five-term demonstrative systems. Take for instance the following:<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<th>Dongxiang</th>

<th>Zhangshu

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Close

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Proximal

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Distal

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Yonder

</th>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>These two lects use tone change and vowel length respectively to distinguish between the four demonstratives.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From Late Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Sīnae</i></span>, 'the Chinese', probably from Arabic <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣīn</i></span> 'China', from the Chinese dynastic name <a href="Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a>. (<i><a href="OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a></i>). In 1982, <a href="Paul_K._Benedict" title="Paul K. Benedict">Paul K. Benedict</a> proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising <a href="Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a> and Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005107_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005107-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005122_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005122-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the term <i>Sinitic</i> is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family rather than as a language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair19913_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19913-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#CITEREFEnfield2003">Enfield (2003</a>:69) and <a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas (1997)</a> for examples. The Chinese terms often translated as 'language' and 'dialect' do not correspond well to those translations. These are <span lang="zh">語言</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yǔyán</span></i>, corresponding to <a href="Macrolanguage" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrolanguage">macrolanguage</a> or <a href="Language_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Language cluster">language cluster</a>, which is used for Chinese itself; <span lang="zh">方言</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">fāngyán</span></i>, which separates mutually unintelligible languages within a <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">yǔyán</i></span>; and <span lang="zh">土語</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tǔyǔ</span></i> or <span lang="zh">土話</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tǔhuà</span></i>, which corresponds better to the familiar Western linguistic use of 'dialect'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley20121_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley20121-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wuhan_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wuhan_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">This term was not assigned a character.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

</li>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Driem2001">van Driem (2001)</a>, p. 351.</span>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFZhangYanPanJin2019" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Menghan; Yan, Shi; Pan, Wuyun; Jin, Li (2019). "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic". <i>Nature</i>. <b>569</b> (7754): <span class="nowrap">112–</span>115. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Natur.569..112Z">2019Natur.569..112Z</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1153-z">10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31019300">31019300</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129946000">129946000</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagartJacquesLaiRyder2019">Sagart et al. (2019)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Driem2001">van Driem (2001</a>:403) states "<span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">Bái</i></span></span> ... may form a constituent of Sinitic, albeit one heavily influenced by Lolo–Burmese."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley20121-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley20121_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2012">Bradley (2012)</a>, p. 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-other-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChanChappellLi2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chan, Sin-Wai; Chappell, Hilary; Li, Lan (2017). "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages". <i>Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese language</i>. Oxford: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">605–</span>628.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/chinese">"Chinese"</a>. <i>Ethnologue</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200372_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman2003">Norman (2003)</a>, p. 72.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 189–190.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZhengzhang2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhengzhang, Shangfang (2010). <bdi lang="zh">蔡家话白语关系及词根比较</bdi>. <bdi lang="zh">研究之乐</bdi> (in Chinese) (2). Shanghai Educational Publishing House: <span class="nowrap">389–</span>400.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREF貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組 (1984). <bdi lang="zh">蔡家的語言</bdi> (in Chinese).</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREF貴州省民族識別工作隊1984" class="citation book cs1">貴州省民族識別工作隊 (1984). <i>南龍人（南京-龍家）族別問題調查報告</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>貴州省志民族志</i>. Guiyang: 貴州民族出版社. 2002.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFXuZhao1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xu, Lin; Zhao, Yansun (1984). <bdi lang="zh">白语简志</bdi> (in Chinese). 民族印刷廠.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTsung2014" class="citation book cs1">Tsung, Linda (2014). <i>Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China</i>. Bloomsbury Publishing.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-harbin-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harbin_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harbin_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFYin1997" class="citation book cs1">Yin, Shichao (1997). <i>哈爾濱方言詞典</i>. 江蘇教育出版社.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLau2021" class="citation book cs1">Lau, Chun-Fat (November 2021). <i>香港客家話研究</i>. Hong Kong: 中華教育. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789888760046</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZhu1992" class="citation book cs1">Zhu, Jiansong (1992). <i>武漢方言研究</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZhu1995" class="citation book cs1">Zhu, Jiansong (May 1995). <i>武漢方言詞典</i>. 江蘇教育出版社. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>7534323290</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWei1995" class="citation book cs1">Wei, Gangqiang (1995). <i>黎川方言詞典</i>. 江蘇教育出版社.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSagartJacquesLaiRyder2019" class="citation cs2"><a href="Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a>; <a href="Guillaume_Jacques" title="Guillaume Jacques">Jacques, Guillaume</a>; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan", <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>, <b>116</b> (21): <span class="nowrap">10317–</span>10322, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1817972116">10.1073/pnas.1817972116</a></span>, <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6534992">6534992</a></span>, <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31061123">31061123</a>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190506151822.htm">"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research"</a>. <i>ScienceDaily</i> (Press release). May 6, 2019.</cite></li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBradley2012" class="citation cs2">Bradley, David (2012), "Languages and Language Families in China", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics.</i>, Brill</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEnfield2003" class="citation cs2">Enfield, N. J. (2003), <i>Linguistics Epidemiology: Semantics and Language Contact in Mainland Southeast Asia</i>, Psychology Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0415297435</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHannas1997" class="citation cs2">Hannas, W. (1997), <i>Asia's Orthographic Dilemma</i>, University of Hawaii Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>082481892X</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFIwata2010" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Iwata, Ray (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Dialectologia/article/download/242105/324717">"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues"</a>, <i>Dialectologia</i>, Special issue I: <span class="nowrap">97–</span>121.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJiangOuyangZou2007" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jiang, Huo 江荻; Ouyang, Jueya 欧阳觉亚; Zou, Heyan 邹嘉彦 (2007), "Hǎinán Shěng Sānyà Shì Màihuà yīnxì" <bdi lang="zh">海南省三亚市迈话音系</bdi>, <i>Fāngyán</i> <bdi lang="zh">方言</bdi> (in Chinese), <b>2007</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">23–</span>34</cite>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKurpaska2010" class="citation cs2">Kurpaska, Maria (2010), <i>Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"</i>, <a href="Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-021914-2</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMair1991" class="citation cs2"><a href="Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf">"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, <b>29</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>31.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMei1970" class="citation cs2"><a href="Mei_Tsu-lin" title="Mei Tsu-lin">Mei, Tsu-lin</a> (1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>30</b>: <span class="nowrap">86–</span>110, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718766">10.2307/2718766</a>, <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718766">2718766</a></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), <i>Chinese</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNorman2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (2003), "The Chinese dialects: Phonology", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), <i>The Sino-Tibetan languages</i>, Routledge, pp. <span class="nowrap">72–</span>83, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7007-1129-1</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin G.</a> (1984), <i>Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology</i>, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7748-0192-8</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTangVan_Heuven2007" class="citation cs2">Tang, Chaoju; Van Heuven, Vincent J. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2317748.pdf">"Predicting mutual intelligibility in chinese dialects from subjective and objective linguistic similarity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Interlingüística</i>, <b>17</b>: <span class="nowrap">1019–</span>1028.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThurgood2003" class="citation cs2">Thurgood, Graham (2003), "The subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman languages: The interaction between language contact, change, and inheritance", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5MeWSTQ7F44C"><i>The Sino-Tibetan languages</i></a>, Routledge, pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>21, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7007-1129-1</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFvan_Driem2001" class="citation cs2">van Driem, George (2001), <i>Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region</i>, Brill, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>90-04-10390-2</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWang2005" class="citation cs2">Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language", <i>Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale</i>, <b>34</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">101–</span>127, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fclao.2005.1728">10.3406/clao.2005.1728</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYan2006" class="citation cs2">Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), <i>Introduction to Chinese Dialectology</i>, LINCOM Europa, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-89586-629-6</bdi></cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Sino-Tibetan_branches630" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western <a href="Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a>,<br><a href="Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></li>

<li><a href="Newaric_languages" title="Newaric languages">Newaric</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Baram%E2%80%93Thangmi_languages" title="Baram–Thangmi languages">Baram–Thangmi</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></li>

<li><a href="Dhimalish_languages" title="Dhimalish languages">Dhimalish</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Lhokpu_language" title="Lhokpu language">Lhokpu</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></i></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Magaric45" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Greater_Magaric_languages" title="Greater Magaric languages">Greater Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Chepangic_languages" title="Chepangic languages">Chepangic</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Raji%E2%80%93Raute_languages" title="Raji–Raute languages">Raji–Raute</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a></i>–<i><a href="Tandrange_language" title="Tandrange language">Tandrange</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern <a href="Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a><br>(<a href="Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></li>

<li><a href="East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Gongduk_language" title="Gongduk language">Gongduk</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Chamdo_languages" title="Chamdo languages">Chamdo</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and Indo-<br>Burmese border</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Mruic_languages" title="Mruic languages">Mruic</a>

<li><i><a href="Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Hkongso</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Taman_language_(Myanmar)" title="Taman language (Myanmar)">Taman</a></i></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami–Pochuri</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Tangkhulic_languages" title="Tangkhulic languages">Tangkhulic</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Konyak_languages" title="Konyak languages">Konyak</a></li>

<li><a href="Jingpho%E2%80%93Luish_languages" title="Jingpho–Luish languages">Jingpho–Luish</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><i><a href="Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Nungish_languages" title="Nungish languages">Nungish</a></li>

<li><a href="Karenic_languages" title="Karenic languages">Karenic</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></i></li>

<ul><li><i><a href="Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a>–<a href="Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burmo-Qiangic41" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Burmo-Qiangic_languages" title="Burmo-Qiangic languages">Burmo-Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gyalrongic_languages" title="Gyalrongic languages">Gyalrongic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ersuic_languages" title="Ersuic languages">Ersuic</a></li>

<li><a href="Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></li>

<li><a href="Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></li>

<li><a href="Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Dubious</a> (possible<br><a href="Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>, <a href="Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></i></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><i><a href="Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju–Meyor</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Songlin_language" title="Songlin language">Songlin</a></i></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Siangic45" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a>

<li><i><a href="Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Idu–Taraon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Central_Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Central Tibeto-Burman languages">Central Tibeto-Burman</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></li>

<li><a href="Mahakiranti_languages" title="Mahakiranti languages">Mahakiranti</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan language">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Karenic_language" title="Proto-Karenic language">Proto-Karenic</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Italics</i> indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_language163" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div id="Chinese_language163" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><b></b></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div id="Major_linguistic_groups163" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Major linguistic groups</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li>

<li><a href="Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li>

<li><a href="Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li>

<li><a href="Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li>

<li><a href="Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li>

<li><a href="Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li>

<li><a href="Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a>

<li><a href="Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li>

<li><a href="Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li>

<li><a href="Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li>

<li>(?) <a href="Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Renshou–Fushun

<ul><li><a href="Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li>

<li><a href="Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li>

<li><a href="Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Lanzhou dialect</li>

<li>Ürümqi dialect</li>

<li><a href="Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li>

<li><a href="Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="11" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li>

<li><a href="Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li>

<li>(?) <a href="Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li>

<li><a href="Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li>

<li><a href="Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li>

<li><a href="Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li>Yanzhou</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a>

<ul><li><a href="Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a>

<ul><li><a href="Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li>

<li><a href="Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Houguan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li>

<li><a href="Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li>

<li><a href="Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li>

<li><a href="Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Fu–Ning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Putian_dialect" title="Putian dialect">Putian</a></li>

<li><a href="Xianyou_dialect" title="Xianyou dialect">Xianyou</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li>

<li><a href="Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Medan</a></li>

<li><a href="Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Southern Malaysia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li>

<li><a href="Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li>

<li><a href="Pontianak_Teochew" title="Pontianak Teochew">Pontianak</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li>

<li><a href="Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li>

<li><a href="Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li>

<li>Banqiao</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Inland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a>

<li><a href="Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li>

<li><a href="Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Huiyang

<ul><li><a href="Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li>

<li><a href="Pontianak_Hakka" title="Pontianak Hakka">Pontianak</a></li>

<li><a href="Singkawang_Hakka" title="Singkawang Hakka">Singkawang</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li>

<li><a href="Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li>

<li><a href="Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Yuehai_Yue" title="Yuehai Yue">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a>

<li><a href="Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li>

<li><a href="Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li>

<li><a href="Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li>

<li><a href="Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li>

<li><a href="Yunfu_Cantonese" title="Yunfu Cantonese">Yunfu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li>

<li>Xinhui</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li>

<li><a href="Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern Pinghua</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li>

<li><a href="Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern Pinghua</a>

<ul><li>Yongjiang</li>

<li>Guandao</li>

<li>Rongjiang</li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e0e0b0;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li>

<li><a href="Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li>

<li><a href="Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li>

<li><a href="She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li>

<li><a href="Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li>

<li><a href="Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">(?) <a href="Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li>

<li><a href="Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li>

<li><a href="Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div id="Standard_forms_of_Chinese163" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard forms of Chinese</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a><br>(<a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li>

<li><a href="Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li>

<li><a href="Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Other varieties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li>

<li><a href="Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li>

<li><a href="Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div id="History,_phonology,_and_grammar163" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History, phonology, and grammar</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a>

<li><a href="Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li>

<li><a href="Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li>

<li><a href="Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li>

<li><a href="Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div id="Written_Chinese_and_input_methods163" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Written Chinese and input methods</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official8" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li>

<li><a href="Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

<ul><li><a href="Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li>

<li><a href="Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li>

<li><a href="Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li>

<li><a href="Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles39" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Chinese_script_styles" title="Chinese script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li>

<li><a href="Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li>

<li><a href="Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li>

<li><a href="Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li>

<li><a href="Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li>

<li><a href="Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li>

<li><a href="Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li>

<li><a href="Xiao'erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li>

<li><a href="N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="Chinese_input_method" title="Chinese input method">Input methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Logographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li>

<li>Boshiamy</li>

<li><a href="Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li>

<li>Microsoft</li>

<li><a href="Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"></span></span> <a href="List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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